Historical Animal keeping

Unit -2 Historical  Animal keeping

a)       History of Animal Keeping in Ancient India and it’s Socio-Economic, Scientific applicability in 21st Century b)       Animals revered in Indian culture; Conservation values inscribed in Ashoka pillar edicts c)       History of portrayal of ‘Hunting’ in Environmental History of India d)      Wildlife represented in Indian mythology, Indus valley civilization, Vedic period, Maurya period, Chalukya period,Maratha period.Mughal period, Jahangir period and British rule

 a)      History of Animal Keeping in Ancient India and its Socio-Economic and Scientific Applicability in the 21st Century.

The history of animal keeping in Ancient India is one of the oldest traditions in human civilization. From the Neolithic period (around 7000 BCE) onwards, people began domesticating animals for food, agriculture, transportation, protection, and religious purposes. Archaeological evidence from Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan shows that early communities reared cattle, sheep, and goats, marking the beginning of organized animal husbandry in the Indian subcontinent.

As Indian civilization developed through the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic Period, Mauryan Empire, Gupta Period, Chalukya, Maratha, and Mughal periods, the relationship between humans and animals became stronger and more diverse. Animals were not only used for farming and trade but also became symbols of power, wealth, and spirituality. Horses were important in warfare, elephants represented royal authority, cows were considered sacred, and many wild animals appeared in myths, sculptures, temple architecture, coins, and inscriptions.If you mean when animal domestication started, there was not one single date it happened gradually for different animals.

• Dogs: among the earliest domesticated animals, probably 15,000–30,000 years ago (possibly earlier).
• Sheep and goats: about 10,000–11,000 years ago, mainly in Southwest Asia.
• Cattle: about 8,000–10,000 years ago.
• Water buffalo: domesticated in South/Southeast Asia roughly 5,000–7,000 years ago.
• Horse: about 5,500 years ago.
• Elephant: historically tamed and managed, but unlike cattle or dogs, elephants were not fully domesticated in the same way; wild elephants were captured and trained.
  
  
  

In the Indian context

Animal domestication and settled animal keeping were established by the Neolithic period, roughly 7000 BCE onward in parts of the Indian subcontinent. Mehrgarh (in present-day Balochistan) provides some of the earliest evidence of early farming and herding in the region, including cattle, sheep and goats.

             Animal keeping has been an integral part of Indian civilization since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization indicates the domestication and systematic management of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and other animals. Over time, animal husbandry developed from a subsistence activity into an important component of agriculture, trade, culture, medicine and scientific knowledge.

 History of Animal Keeping in Ancient India

            Animal keeping, domestication and animal husbandry have been an important part of Indian civilization since prehistoric times. Animals were valued not only as sources of food but also for agriculture, transportation, trade, warfare, religious practices and social status. The history of animal keeping in India can be broadly understood through archaeological evidence, Vedic literature, ancient scientific texts and historical records.

1. Prehistoric Period

The earliest evidence of human association with domesticated animals in the Indian subcontinent comes from prehistoric and Neolithic settlements. The domestication of animals gradually changed human life from hunting and gathering towards settled agriculture and pastoralism.

Important domesticated animals included:

• Cattle and buffalo – for milk, meat and agricultural work.
• Sheep and goats – for meat, milk and fibre.
• Dogs – for protection and hunting.
• Pigs – as a source of food.
• Horses – later became important for transport and warfare.
• Elephants – were subsequently captured, trained and used for transport and warfare.

2. Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (approximately 2500–1900 BCE) provides some of the earliest substantial archaeological evidence of animal domestication and management in India.

Archaeological excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and other sites have yielded animal bones, figurines, seals and other evidence associated with domestic animals.

Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs were among the animals associated with human settlements. Cattle were particularly important, as bulls could be used for ploughing and transportation, while cows provided milk.

The famous bull seals and terracotta animal figurines demonstrate the cultural and economic importance of animals in Indus society.

3. Vedic Period

During the Vedic period (approximately 1500–600 BCE), animal husbandry became closely associated with agriculture, economy and social life. The cow occupied a particularly important position. Cattle were a major indicator of wealth, and several references to cattle occur in Vedic literature. Cows supplied milk and dairy products, while oxen were used for ploughing and transportation.

Other important animals included:

• Horse – transportation, warfare and ceremonial activities.
• Cattle and buffalo – agriculture and dairy production.
• Sheep and goats – meat, milk and wool/hair.
• Dogs – guarding and hunting.
• Elephants – gradually became important for warfare and royal purposes.

The Vedic literature also contains references to animal care, feeding, breeding and protection.

4. Mauryan Period

During the Mauryan period (c. 321–185 BCE), animal management became more organized as part of state administration.

Kautilya's Arthashastra provides information concerning cattle, horses, elephants, forests, animal-related occupations and their economic importance. Specialized officials were associated with the management and protection of animals.

The reign of Emperor Ashoka represents an important stage in the history of animal welfare. His inscriptions emphasize compassion towards animals and describe measures relating to animal protection and medical treatment.

5. Development of Veterinary Knowledge

Ancient India developed specialized traditions of veterinary medicine, commonly associated with Pashu Ayurveda. 

Shalihotra is traditionally regarded as one of the earliest authorities on veterinary medicine, particularly the treatment and management of horses. The Shalihotra Samhita contains knowledge relating to horse anatomy, diseases, diagnosis, treatment, feeding and management.

            Similarly, specialized knowledge developed for elephants. Texts associated with Hastyayurveda describe aspects of elephant capture, training, nutrition, diseases and treatment.

Thus, animal keeping gradually developed from simple domestication into a more systematic discipline involving breeding, feeding, healthcare and management.

6. Gupta and Medieval Period

During the Gupta and subsequent medieval periods, livestock continued to be an essential component of agriculture and rural economy. Cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats and elephants were used for different purposes.

Animal products such as milk, ghee, wool, hides and other materials contributed to household consumption and trade. Horses and elephants were particularly important for armies and transportation.

Traditional knowledge concerning animal breeding, feeding and healthcare continued to be transmitted through agricultural communities and specialized practitioners.

7. Major Roles of Animals in Ancient India

Animal	Major uses
Cow/Ox	Milk, dairy products, ploughing, transportation
Buffalo	Milk and agricultural work
Horse	Transportation, warfare, ceremonial purposes
Elephant	Warfare, transportation, royal activities
Sheep	Wool, meat, milk
Goat	Meat, milk and fibre
Pig	Food
Dog	Protection, hunting and companionship
Camel	Transportation and trade, particularly in arid regions

 Historical Animal Keeping – Socio-Economic and Scientific Applicability in the 21st Century

Historical animal keeping in India refers to the traditional practices of domestication, breeding, feeding, utilization, healthcare and management of animals developed over thousands of years. Animals were closely integrated with agriculture, household economy, transportation, trade, warfare, culture and medicine. Ancient practices provide a valuable foundation for understanding modern sustainable animal husbandry, although traditional knowledge must be scientifically validated before contemporary application.

2. Socio-Economic Applicability in the 21st Century

A. Livelihood and employment

Livestock continues to be an important source of income, employment and livelihood, particularly in rural areas. Dairy farming, goat rearing, sheep farming, poultry and other livestock enterprises can supplement agricultural income.

B. Food and nutritional security

Animals provide important sources of milk, meat and eggs, supplying high-quality proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. Sustainable livestock production can therefore contribute to national food and nutritional security.

C. Integrated farming

Historical Indian agriculture frequently integrated crops and livestock. Crop residues could be used as animal feed, while animal manure could be returned to agricultural fields.

This principle is highly relevant to modern:

Crop production + Livestock + Organic manure + Biogas → Circular farming system

Such systems can reduce waste and improve resource efficiency.

D. Indigenous livestock breeds

Traditional animal keeping contributed to the maintenance of locally adapted breeds. Indigenous breeds can possess valuable characteristics such as:

• Adaptation to local climate
• Heat tolerance
• Resistance or resilience to certain diseases
• Ability to utilize locally available feed
• Adaptation to low-input production systems

Scientific characterization and conservation of these genetic resources are important in the era of climate change.

E. Rural entrepreneurship

Traditional livestock activities can be modernized through scientific breeding, improved nutrition, veterinary services, value addition and digital marketing. This can create opportunities for small-scale livestock enterprises and rural entrepreneurship.

 3. Scientific Applicability in the 21st Century

A. Traditional knowledge and modern veterinary science

Historical knowledge concerning animal diseases, medicinal plants, feeding and management can provide hypotheses for modern research. However, traditional remedies should be evaluated through:

Phytochemical analysis → Laboratory testing → Toxicity studies → Controlled trials → Veterinary application

This allows useful traditional practices to be separated from practices that lack scientific evidence.

B. Conservation genetics

Ancient livestock populations represent an important genetic resource. Modern technologies such as:

• DNA sequencing
• Genomic selection
• Molecular markers
• Cryopreservation
• Assisted reproductive technologies

can be used for breed identification, genetic improvement and conservation.

C. Sustainable livestock production

Traditional low-input systems can be combined with modern science to develop environmentally sustainable livestock production. Animal manure can be converted into compost, biofertilizers and biogas, reducing dependence on external inputs.

D. Precision livestock farming

Modern technology can greatly improve traditional animal management. Sensors, GPS, cameras, artificial intelligence and automated systems can monitor:

• Animal health
• Feeding behaviour
• Reproductive status
• Body temperature
• Movement and activity
• Milk production

This enables early disease detection and more efficient management.

.E. Climate change adaptation

Historical indigenous breeds and traditional management practices may provide useful resources for developing climate-resilient livestock systems. Heat-tolerant breeds, efficient use of local feed resources, water conservation and appropriate housing can help reduce the effects of increasing temperatures and climatic variability.

 

a.    Animals Revered in Indian Culture and Conservation Values in Ashoka's Pillar Edicts

Animals have occupied an important place in Indian culture since ancient times. They have been associated with religion, mythology, agriculture, medicine, art, literature and ethical values. This cultural relationship also contributed to traditions of compassion, protection and coexistence with animals.

1. Animals Revered in Indian Culture

Different animals have been given symbolic, religious or cultural importance in Indian traditions.

Animal	Cultural significance
Cow	Associated with nourishment, agriculture and prosperity; highly respected in many Indian traditions
Bull/Nandi	Associated with Lord Shiva; symbol of strength and agricultural power
Elephant	Associated with Lord Ganesha; symbol of wisdom, strength and prosperity
Lion	Symbol of courage, power and royalty; associated with Goddess Durga
Tiger	Associated with Goddess Durga; symbol of strength and protection
Peacock	Associated with Lord Krishna and Kartikeya; India's national bird
Swan (Hamsa)	Associated with Saraswati; traditionally represents wisdom and discernment
Owl	Associated with Goddess Lakshmi in Hindu tradition
Snake/Cobra (Naga)	Important in Naga traditions and associated with Shiva and other deities
Monkey	Strongly associated with Hanuman and devotion
Dog	Associated with Bhairava and several traditional cultural practices
Fish	Associated with the Matsya incarnation of Vishnu and aquatic life
Tortoise	Associated with Kurma, the tortoise incarnation of Vishnu
Deer	Appears prominently in Buddhist and other Indian traditions; associated with forests and non-violence

 2. Cultural Reverence and Conservation

The traditional reverence for animals can contribute to conservation values in several ways:

a. Compassion towards living beings
The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) encouraged avoidance of unnecessary harm to animals.

b. Protection of particular species
Religious and cultural associations sometimes provided social protection to particular animals, birds and reptiles.

c. Sacred landscapes
Sacred groves, ponds, forests and temple-associated habitats sometimes functioned as informal conservation areas where exploitation was restricted.

d. Human–animal coexistence
Traditional agricultural and pastoral systems developed ways of living alongside domesticated and wild animals.

However, it is important scientifically to distinguish cultural reverence from formal conservation. Not every culturally respected species was necessarily protected, and historical practices varied between regions and communities.

3. Conservation Values in Ashoka's Edicts

The reign of Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) represents an important historical example of state-supported concern for animal welfare.

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka promoted Dhamma, which emphasized ethical conduct, compassion and reduction of unnecessary violence. His inscriptions provide some of the earliest known evidence of royal policies concerning animals in the Indian subcontinent.

Major conservation-related principles

A. Reduction of animal killing

Ashoka's Pillar Edict V contains a list of animals and birds that were protected from killing under specified circumstances. It also placed restrictions on particular forms of animal slaughter and treatment.

This demonstrates an early attempt to establish legal or administrative restrictions on harming animals.

B. Protection of certain species

Ashoka specifically identified various animals that were not to be killed or were to receive protection. The exact list and restrictions differed according to the particular edict.

This is significant because conservation was not merely a personal ethical principle—it was incorporated into state policy.

C. Restriction of unnecessary slaughter

Ashoka's Rock Edict I records restrictions on animal slaughter and describes a reduction in the number of animals killed for royal purposes.

This indicates an effort to reduce unnecessary animal mortality.

D. Provision of medical treatment

In Rock Edict II, Ashoka refers to medical treatment for humans and animals and the provision of medicinal plants. He also mentions arrangements for beneficial plants and wells along roads.

This reflects an early concept of animal welfare connected with healthcare and environmental management.

E. Protection of forests and wildlife

Ashoka's policies also included restrictions on certain forms of destruction of forests and wildlife. His inscriptions indicate concern for the broader living environment rather than animals alone.

 

4. Significance for Modern Conservation Biology

Ashoka's conservation principles can be connected with several modern concepts:

Ashokan principle	Modern conservation concept
Restriction on killing animals	Wildlife protection laws
Protection of selected species	Species conservation
Reduction of unnecessary slaughter	Animal welfare
Medical care for animals	Veterinary healthcare
Protection of plants	Habitat and biodiversity conservation
Concern for forests	Ecosystem conservation
Ethical treatment of living beings	Animal ethics
State involvement in protection	Government conservation policy

5. Important Historical Significance

Ashoka's edicts should not be described as a modern wildlife-conservation law in the contemporary scientific sense. Modern conservation biology is based on concepts such as population ecology, genetics, biodiversity, habitat protection and ecosystem management, which developed much later.

 

b.    c)   History of the Portrayal of “Hunting” in the Environmental History of India

 The history of hunting in India reflects the changing relationship between human society and the natural environment. Hunting was once essential for survival, later became an important royal and cultural practice, and reached particularly large scales during the colonial period. The resulting decline of wildlife, combined with habitat loss, contributed to the development of modern conservation policies.

 Hunting has a long and changing history in the Indian subcontinent. Its meaning has changed from a subsistence activity of early human communities to a practice associated with royalty, sport and colonial power, and eventually to an activity increasingly regulated or prohibited under modern wildlife conservation laws.

The environmental history of hunting is therefore not simply the history of killing animals. It reflects changing relationships between humans, wildlife, forests, technology, economy, culture and the state.

1. Prehistoric Hunting: Survival and Subsistence

In prehistoric India, hunting was an essential source of food before agriculture and animal domestication became widespread.

Early hunter-gatherer communities hunted wild animals and collected plant resources. Archaeological evidence and prehistoric rock paintings provide important information about hunting practices.

The famous rock paintings of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh depict animals and human activities, including hunting scenes. These paintings demonstrate the close relationship between early human communities and wildlife.

At this stage:

Hunting → Food → Survival → Small-scale interaction with wildlife

Hunting was generally carried out using relatively simple weapons such as stone tools, spears, bows and arrows.

 2. Neolithic and Agricultural Period

With the development of agriculture and animal domestication from approximately the 7th millennium BCE onward, dependence on hunting gradually decreased in many settled communities.

However, hunting continued because it provided:

• Meat
• Animal products such as hides and horns
• Protection from animals damaging crops
• Cultural and ritual benefits

The relationship between humans and wildlife therefore became more complex as agricultural settlements expanded.

 3. Hunting in Ancient Indian Literature and Culture

Hunting appears frequently in ancient Indian literature and artistic traditions.

Ramayana and Mahabharata

Hunting is described in the Ramayana and Mahabharata in different contexts. Kings and warriors are often portrayed as hunters, and hunting was associated with martial training, recreation and royal life.

At the same time, Indian philosophical and religious traditions also developed strong ideas of Ahimsa (non-violence) and compassion towards living beings.

Thus, ancient Indian traditions contained two apparently contrasting ideas:

Hunting as a royal/martial activity

Ahimsa and protection of living beings

This tension is important for understanding India's environmental history.

 4. Hunting and Royalty

During ancient and medieval periods, hunting increasingly became associated with kingship and political power.

Royal hunting expeditions served several purposes:

• Recreation
• Demonstration of courage
• Military training
• Display of royal authority
• Control of dangerous animals
• Acquisition of meat and animal products

Hunting large animals such as tigers, elephants, deer and wild boar could become an important royal activity.

The forest was consequently viewed not only as a source of resources but also as a royal hunting landscape.

 5. Ashoka and an Alternative Ethical Approach

The reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE represents an important change in the historical discussion of animal killing.

Following the Kalinga War, Ashoka promoted Dhamma, emphasizing compassion and reduction of unnecessary violence.

His inscriptions contain restrictions concerning the killing of animals and provide evidence of concern for animal welfare.

This is important environmentally because it demonstrates that the relationship between humans and animals was becoming a subject of ethical and administrative consideration.

 6. Medieval Period: Hunting as Royal Sport

During the medieval period, hunting remained an important activity among rulers and aristocratic groups.

Sultans, Mughal emperors, Rajput rulers and other elites conducted organized hunting expeditions.

Under the Mughal Empire, hunting was extensively represented in paintings, manuscripts and court records. Animals such as:

• Tiger
• Lion
• Leopard
• Deer
• Nilgai
• Wild boar
• Elephant

were hunted.

For rulers, hunting could demonstrate courage, physical ability, military skill and political authority.

However, hunting was not restricted to sport. It could also be associated with obtaining food and controlling animals considered dangerous or destructive.

 7. Colonial Period: Major Transformation

The colonial period brought a major transformation in the scale and meaning of hunting.

British colonial officials, soldiers and Indian princes increasingly practiced sport hunting.

The development of:

• Firearms
• Railways
• Roads
• Improved transportation
• Organized hunting expeditions
• Trophy collection

made hunting more efficient and accessible.

Trophy hunting

Large animals such as tigers, leopards, elephants, rhinoceroses and deer became targets of trophy hunting.

The tiger became particularly important as a hunting trophy.

Hunting records and photographs from the colonial period often portrayed the successful hunter standing beside a dead tiger or other large animal.

 8. Environmental Consequences of Colonial Hunting

Large-scale hunting contributed to declining populations of several wildlife species in different parts of India.

The problem was intensified by habitat destruction, including:

• Agricultural expansion
• Commercial forestry
• Infrastructure development
• Mining
• Urbanization

The ecological consequences eventually contributed to growing awareness of wildlife protection.

9. Post-Independence India

After independence, hunting continued for some time under regulated conditions. However, increasing evidence of wildlife decline resulted in stronger protection.

A major milestone was the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which provided a comprehensive legal framework for wildlife protection in India.

The Act substantially restricted hunting and established stronger protection for wild animals.

Subsequent conservation initiatives included:

• Project Tiger (1973)
• Project Elephant
• Expansion of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
• Species recovery programmes
• Community-based conservation
• Scientific wildlife management

d.       Wildlife represented in Indian mythology, Indus valley civilization, Vedic period, Maurya period, Chalukya period,Maratha period.Mughal period, Jahangir period and British rule

Introduction

            Wildlife has been an inseparable component of the ecological, cultural and intellectual history of the Indian subcontinent. From prehistoric times to the modern period, wild animals have occupied a distinctive position in the relationship between human societies and the natural environment. They have been represented in mythology, religious traditions, literature, folk culture, sculpture, architecture, paintings, manuscripts, royal chronicles, hunting traditions and scientific records. The study of wildlife representation is therefore not limited to zoology or art history; it also provides valuable insights into the environmental history of India and the changing perception of nature by human societies.

         India possesses a remarkable diversity of wildlife, and this biodiversity has historically influenced human settlement, agriculture, religion, economy and cultural practices. Animals were used as sources of food, transport, agricultural power and materials, but many species also acquired meanings that went far beyond their utilitarian value. The elephant represented strength and wisdom, the lion represented courage and sovereignty, the bull represented strength and fertility, the peacock represented beauty and divinity, the snake was associated with supernatural powers, and the monkey became closely associated with devotion and religious narratives. Such representations demonstrate that human relationships with wildlife were based not only on exploitation but also on reverence, symbolism, fear, coexistence and ethical responsibility.

1. Wildlife in Indian Mythology

            Indian mythology provides one of the earliest and most influential frameworks through which wildlife was represented. Animals and birds occur extensively in the stories, symbols and iconography associated with Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions. Several animals became associated with particular deities as vahanas (vehicles or mounts), while others appeared as divine manifestations, companions or symbolic beings.

The elephant-headed Ganesha, the bull Nandi associated with Shiva, the lion associated with Durga and Narasimha, the peacock associated with Kartikeya, the monkey form represented by Hanuman, and the serpent traditions associated with the Nagas are prominent examples. The Matsya (fish) and Kurma (tortoise) incarnations of Vishnu demonstrate how animals were incorporated into religious narratives at the highest theological level.

These traditions contributed to a cultural perception in which certain animals were regarded with respect and, in some circumstances, protection.

            The concept of Ahimsa, or non-violence towards living beings, particularly developed within Indian philosophical traditions and became an important ethical principle influencing human–animal relationships. Nevertheless, Indian traditions also contain references to hunting, sacrifice and animal utilization. Therefore, mythology presents a complex relationship involving reverence, protection, utilization and symbolic representation.

 2. Wildlife in the Indus Valley Civilization

            The Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE) provides some of the earliest archaeological evidence for the representation of wildlife in the Indian subcontinent. Animals were frequently depicted on seals, pottery, terracotta objects, ornaments and other archaeological materials.

The bull is one of the most frequently represented animals, while elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, deer and other animals also occur in the archaeological record. The famous animal seals demonstrate the importance of wildlife in Harappan visual culture. Some animals may have had religious or symbolic meanings, although the precise interpretation of many images remains uncertain because the Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered.

The Harappan evidence demonstrates that wildlife formed an important part of the intellectual and material culture of early urban society. It also reflects the close relationship between humans, domesticated animals and wild fauna within the landscape.

 3. Wildlife in the Vedic Period

            During the Vedic period, approximately 1500–600 BCE, animals became deeply integrated into economic, agricultural, religious and social life. Vedic literature contains numerous references to animals and birds.

            The cow and bull occupied a particularly important position because cattle were associated with wealth, agriculture, dairy production and social status. Horses were important for transportation, warfare and royal ceremonies. At the same time, wild animals such as deer, elephants, lions and various birds appeared in literary and religious contexts.

The Vedic representation of animals therefore reflects multiple relationships: animals could be economic resources, ritual participants, symbols of power, sources of food and components of the natural environment. This period provides important evidence for understanding the transition from predominantly pastoral systems towards increasingly settled agricultural societies and their changing relationship with wildlife.

 4. Wildlife in the Mauryan Period

            The Mauryan period (c. 321–185 BCE) represents an important stage in the history of animal representation because wildlife became strongly associated with imperial authority as well as ethical governance.

Animal motifs appear prominently in Mauryan art, particularly in Ashokan pillars and capitals. The most famous example is the Lion Capital of Sarnath, in which four lions are positioned back-to-back above a sculpted abacus containing representations of an elephant, horse, bull and lion. The lion became a powerful symbol of royal authority and later became the basis of the State Emblem of India.

The reign of Emperor Ashoka is particularly important from an environmental perspective. His inscriptions demonstrate concern about the unnecessary killing of animals and describe restrictions concerning the protection of certain animals. References to medical treatment for humans and animals and to the availability of medicinal plants also indicate a broader ethical concern for living beings and the environment.

Consequently, the Mauryan period provides an important historical link between wildlife representation, political authority, animal welfare and early state-supported protection of living organisms.

 

1.      5. Wildlife in the Chalukya Period

During the Chalukya period, particularly from the sixth century CE onwards, wildlife became an important component of temple architecture and sculpture. The artistic traditions of the Chalukyas incorporated numerous animals and mythical creatures into temple walls, pillars, gateways, friezes and sculptural panels.

Lions, elephants, horses, bulls, deer, birds and various composite or mythical animals were represented with considerable artistic detail. The elephant and lion, in particular, frequently conveyed ideas of strength, power and royal authority.

Wildlife representations were not simply decorative. They formed part of a larger religious and cosmological understanding in which humans, animals, supernatural beings and the natural world were interconnected. The Chalukyan artistic tradition therefore provides valuable evidence of how wildlife was incorporated into the cultural and religious landscape.

2.      Wildlife in the Maratha Period

During the Maratha period, animals continued to occupy important positions in religious culture, military organization, court traditions and artistic representation.

The horse was especially significant because of the importance of cavalry in Maratha military organization. Horses became symbols of mobility, military power and leadership. Elephants also had ceremonial and military importance, while cattle and other livestock remained essential to agricultural society.

Wild animals such as tigers, leopards and deer appeared in hunting scenes and courtly representations. Wildlife was therefore represented through several different cultural perspectives: as a component of the natural environment, as an object of hunting, as a symbol of power and as part of religious and artistic traditions.

6.     Wildlife in the Mughal Period

The Mughal period marked a major development in the artistic representation of Indian wildlife. Mughal artists demonstrated an increasing interest in realistic and detailed representations of animals and birds.

Wildlife appeared extensively in miniature paintings, illustrated manuscripts, court paintings and hunting scenes. Tigers, lions, leopards, elephants, deer, antelopes, rhinoceroses, peacocks, cranes, parrots, falcons and many other birds were depicted.

Mughal hunting scenes are particularly important for environmental history because they document both the diversity of wildlife and the cultural practice of hunting. At the same time, the careful observation of animal morphology and behaviour in paintings provides valuable historical evidence about how artists and rulers perceived the natural world.

4.   7. Wildlife Representation during the Reign of Jahangir

The reign of Emperor Jahangir (1605–1627 CE) deserves special attention because of his exceptional interest in nature and animals. Jahangir recorded observations concerning animals, birds and unusual natural phenomena in his memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Jahangirnama.

The Mughal court artist Ustad Mansur became particularly renowned for his detailed representations of birds and animals. His works demonstrate close observation of body form, feathers, coloration, posture and other morphological characteristics.

The representation of wildlife during Jahangir's reign can therefore be considered an important stage in the development of natural-history illustration in South Asia. Although these works were produced within a royal artistic tradition rather than modern scientific institutions, they demonstrate an impressive combination of artistic skill, observation and documentation of biodiversity.

  5.      Wildlife during British Rule

British colonial rule brought another major transformation in the representation and treatment of Indian wildlife. During the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Indian wildlife was represented through natural-history illustrations, scientific surveys, museum specimens, photographs, books, hunting records and paintings.

 6.      Wildlife as a hunting trophy

British officials, soldiers and Indian princes participated in large-scale sport hunting. Tigers, leopards, elephants, rhinoceroses, deer and other large animals were hunted. The development of firearms, transportation networks and organized hunting expeditions increased the scale and efficiency of hunting.

Photographs showing hunters with dead tigers or other large animals became an important visual representation of colonial power and status. Wildlife was consequently transformed into a symbol of hunting achievement and imperial authority.

 7.      Wildlife as a scientific subject

At the same time, colonial naturalists and zoologists systematically documented India's fauna. Animals were collected, classified, illustrated and preserved in museums. Zoological surveys and natural-history publications contributed substantially to the scientific documentation of Indian biodiversity.

Thus, colonial representations of wildlife contained a major contradiction:

The decline of several wildlife populations, together with habitat destruction and commercial exploitation of forests, eventually contributed to increasing awareness of the need for wildlife protection.